- World Bank. 2017. World Development Indicators. 2016. [ONLINE]. Available at: http://databank.worldbank.org/data/reports.aspx?source=world-development-indicators [Accessed 9 March 2017].
- ILO, 2017. Key Indicators of the Labour Market, 9th edition: Labour force participation rate. [ONLINE]. Available at: http://www.ilo.org/ilostat/faces/wcnav_defaultSelection?_adf.ctrl-state=104tp9goug_4&_afrLoop=42217123990124&_afrWindowMode=0&_afrWindowId=104tp9goug_60#! [Accessed 10 March 2017].
- Ibid.
- Ibid.
- Ibid.
- Ulandssekretariatet. 2015. Labour market profile: Egypt 2015. [ONLINE]. Available at: http://www.ulandssekretariatet.dk/sites/default/files/uploads/public/PDF/LMP/LMP2015/lmp_egypt_2015_final_version.pdf [Accessed 14 February 2017].
- Hendy, R (Economic Research Forum). 2015. Women’s participation in the Egyptian Labour Market: 1998-2012. Working paper series no. 907. [ONLINE]. Available at: https://erf.org.eg/wp-content/uploads/2015/12/907.pdf [Accessed 13 March 2017].
- Ulandssekretariatet. 2015. Labour market profile: Egypt 2015. [ONLINE]. Available at: http://www.ulandssekretariatet.dk/sites/default/files/uploads/public/PDF/LMP/LMP2015/lmp_egypt_2015_final_version.pdf [Accessed 14 February 2017].
- Central Agency for Public Mobilisation and Statistics. 2015. Statistical Yearbook 2015. [ONLINE]. Available at: http://www.msrintranet.capmas.gov.eg/pdf/Eloctronic_year_book%202015//PDF/labor/Untitled.pdf [Accessed 7 February 2017].
- Ibid.
- Ibid.
- World Bank. 2014. Arab Republic of Egypt more jobs, better jobs: A priority for Egypt. [ONLINE]. Available at: http://documents.worldbank.org/curated/en/926831468247461895/pdf/884470EG0repla00Box385343B00PUBLIC0.pdf [Accessed 9 February 2017].
- Ibid.
- Ibid.
- Open Data for Africa. 2016. AfDB Socio Economic Database 1960-2016. [ONLINE]. Available at: http://opendataforafrica.org/ugzwcd/afdb-socio-economic-database-1960-2016 [Accessed 9 February 2017].
- Ibid.
- World Bank. 2017. World Development Indicators, 2016. [ONLINE]. Available at: http://databank.worldbank.org/data/reports.aspx?source=world-development-indicators&Type=TABLE&preview=on# [Accessed 7 February 2017].
- Central Agency for Public Mobilisation and Statistics. 2015. Egypt in figures 2015. [ONLINE]. Available at: http://www.msrintranet.capmas.gov.eg/pdf/EgyptinFigures2015/EgyptinFigures/Tables/PDF/3-%20%D8%A7%D9%84%D8%B9%D9%85%D9%84/labor.pdf [Accessed 7 February 2017].
- Ibid.
- Ministry of Education. 2014. Egypt country report: Policies and mechanisms for integration into the workforce and job creation – draft country report. [ONLINE]. Available at: http://www.adeanet.org/min_conf_youth_skills_employment/sites/default/files/u24/Egypt%20Country%20Report_0.pdf [Accessed 13 March 2017].
- Central Agency for Public Mobilisation and Statistics. 2015. Egypt in figures 2015. [ONLINE]. Available at: http://www.msrintranet.capmas.gov.eg/pdf/EgyptinFigures2015/EgyptinFigures/Tables/PDF/3-%20%D8%A7%D9%84%D8%B9%D9%85%D9%84/labor.pdf [Accessed 7 February 2017].
- Central Agency for Public Mobilisation and Statistics. 2015. Statistical Yearbook 2015. [ONLINE]. Available at: http://www.msrintranet.capmas.gov.eg/pdf/Eloctronic_year_book%202015//PDF/labor/Untitled.pdf [Accessed 7 February 2017].
- World Bank. 2017. World Development Indicators, 2016. [ONLINE]. Available at: http://databank.worldbank.org/data/reports.aspx?source=world-development-indicators&Type=TABLE&preview=on# [Accessed 8 February 2017].
- Ibid.
- International Labour Organization. 2015. Trends Econometric Models: Employment by broad occupation (skill) and sex. [ONLINE]. Available at: http://www.ilo.org/legacy/english/weso/2015/WESO_jan2015.xlsx [Accessed 10 February 2017].
- Ibid.
- Ibid.
- Ibid.
- International Labour Organisation. 2017. Employment by sex and occupation. [ONLINE]. Available at: http://www.ilo.org/ilostat/faces/oracle/webcenter/portalapp/pagehierarchy/Page27.jspx?subject=EMP&indicator=EMP_TEMP_SEX_OCU_NB&datasetCode=A&collectionCode=YI&_afrLoop [Accessed 14 February 2017].
- Ibid.
- World Bank. 2016. Enterprise Surveys: What businesses experience (Gender). [ONLINE]. Available at: http://www.enterprisesurveys.org/data/exploretopics/gender#2 [Accessed 10 February 2017].
- International Labour Organization. 2015. Key Indicators of the Labour Market 2015: Labour productivity. [ONLINE]. Available at: http://www.ilo.org/global/statistics-and-databases/research-and-databases/kilm/WCMS_422456/lang--en/index.htm [Accessed 10 February 2017].
- Ibid.
- Central Agency for Public Mobilisation and Statistics. 2015. Statistical Yearbook 2015. [ONLINE]. Available at: http://www.msrintranet.capmas.gov.eg/pdf/Eloctronic_year_book%202015//PDF/labor/Untitled.pdf [Accessed 7 February 2017].
- ILO, 2017. Key Indicators of the Labour Market, 9th edition: Unemployment rate. [ONLINE]. Available at: http://www.ilo.org/ilostat/faces/wcnav_defaultSelection;ILOSTATCOOKIE=hbb6NCLJGElOyQzpsVKSEvdl5rAZFovvTiNAPC4DGB7nycg8QraU!525160350?_afrLoop=56683940570047&_afrWindowMode=0&_afrWindowId=null#!%40%40%3F_afrWindowId%3Dnull%26_afrLoop%3D56683940570047%26_afrWindowMode%3D0%26_adf.ctrl-state%3Dn2mhke9zp_4 [Accessed 23 March 2017].
- Central Agency for Public Mobilisation and Statistics. 2015. Egypt in figures 2015. [ONLINE]. Available at: http://www.msrintranet.capmas.gov.eg/pdf/EgyptinFigures2015/EgyptinFigures/Tables/PDF/3-%20%D8%A7%D9%84%D8%B9%D9%85%D9%84/labor.pdf [Accessed 7 February 2017].
- Central Agency for Public Mobilisation and Statistics. 2015. Statistical Yearbook 2015. [ONLINE]. Available at: http://www.msrintranet.capmas.gov.eg/pdf/Eloctronic_year_book%202015//PDF/labor/Untitled.pdf [Accessed 7 February 2017].
- Ibid.
- Ibid.
- World Bank. 2014. ‘Egypt’s Private Sector: A driving force for job creation’. [ONLINE]. Available at: http://www.worldbank.org/en/news/feature/2014/09/18/egypts-private-sector-a-driving-force-for-job-creation [Accessed 11 April 2017].
- USAID. 2016. Egypt: Economic growth and trade. [ONLINE]. Available at: https://www.usaid.gov/egypt/economic-growth-and-trade [Accessed 28 March 2017].
- The Swedish Trade & Invest Council. 2015. Egypt entrepreneurship study. [ONLINE]. Available at: http://www.swedenabroad.com/ImageVaultFiles/id_35371/cf_347/Business_Sweden_Egypt_Entrepreneurship_Study.PDF [Accessed 28 March 2017].
- United Nations, Department of Economic and Social Affairs. 2015. Trends in International Migrant Stock: The 2015 revision. [ONLINE]. Available at: http://www.un.org/en/development/desa/population/migration/data/estimates2/estimates15.shtml [Accessed 13 February 2017].
- Ibid.
- Ibid.
- World Bank. 2016. World Development Indicators, 2015. [ONLINE]. Available at: http://databank.worldbank.org/data/reports.aspx?source=2&series=SM.EMI.TERT.ZS&country= [Accessed 12 December 2016].
- OECD. 2015. “Egypt”, in connecting with emigrants: A global profile of diasporas 2015. [ONLINE]. Available at: http://www.keepeek.com/Digital-Asset-Management/oecd/social-issues-migration-health/connecting-with-emigrants/egypt_9789264239845-106-en#.WE6VQFN97IU [Accessed 12 December 2016].
- World Bank. 2016. World Development Indicators, 2015. [ONLINE]. Available at: http://databank.worldbank.org/data/reports.aspx?source=2&series=SM.EMI.TERT.ZS&country= [Accessed 12 December 2016].
- OECD. 2015. “Egypt”, in connecting with emigrants: A global profile of diasporas 2015. [ONLINE]. Available at: http://www.keepeek.com/Digital-Asset-Management/oecd/social-issues-migration-health/connecting-with-emigrants/egypt_9789264239845-106-en#.WE6VQFN97IU [Accessed 12 December 2016].
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- Ibid.
- Ibid.
- Ibid.
- OECD. 2015. “Egypt”, in connecting with emigrants: A global profile of diasporas 2015. [ONLINE]. Available at: http://www.keepeek.com/Digital-Asset-Management/oecd/social-issues-migration-health/connecting-with-emigrants/egypt_9789264239845-106-en#.WE6VQFN97IU [Accessed 12 December 2016].
- Ibid.
- Ibid.
- United Nations Educational, Scientific and Cultural Organization. 2016. Education Statistics. [ONLINE]. Available at: http://data.uis.unesco.org/ [Accessed 13 December 2016].
- Ibid.
- Ibid.
- United Nations, Department of Economic and Social Affairs. 2015. Trends in International Migrant Stock: The 2015 revision. [ONLINE]. Available at: http://www.un.org/en/development/desa/population/migration/data/estimates2/estimates15.shtml [Accessed 13 February 2017].
- Ibid.
- Ibid.
- Ibid.
- Index Mundi. 2016. Net migration rate. [ONLINE]. Available at: http://www.indexmundi.com/egypt/net_migration_rate.html [Accessed 13 February 2017].
- ExpatArrivals. 2017. Visas for Egypt. [ONLINE]. Available at: http://www.expatarrivals.com/egypt/visas-for-egypt [Accessed 20 February 2017].
- Ibid.
- Ibid.
- ExpatArrivals. 2017. Work permits for Egypt. [ONLINE]. Available at: http://www.expatarrivals.com/egypt/work-permits-for-egypt [Accessed 20 February 2017].
- World Bank. 2016. Migration and Remittances Data. [ONLINE]. Available at: http://www.worldbank.org/en/topic/migrationremittancesdiasporaissues/brief/migration-remittances-data [Accessed 13 February 2017].
- Ibid.
- INSEAD. 2017. The Global Talent Competitiveness Index 2017: Talent and technology. [ONLINE]. Available at: http://www.gtci2017.com/documents/GTCI_2017_web_r3.pdf [Accessed 27 March 2017].
- Kholaif, D. 2013. ‘Egypt's new minimum wage disappoints many’, Al Jazeera Media Network, 23 September. [ONLINE]. Available at: http://www.aljazeera.com/indepth/features/2013/09/2013922153337321995.html [Accessed 23 March 2017].
- AbdelAzim, M. 2104. ‘New minimum wage costs and allocations announced’, Daily News Egypt, 7 January. [ONLINE]. Available at: http://www.dailynewsegypt.com/2014/01/07/new-minimum-wage-costs-and-allocations-announced/ [Accessed 23 March 2017].
- Al-youm, AM. 2017. ‘Egypt Cabinet to increase civil servants minimum wage’, Egypt Independent, 10 January. [ONLINE]. Available at: http://www.egyptindependent.com//news/egypt-cabinet-increase-civil-servants-minimum-wage [Accessed 23 March 2017].
- Central Agency for Public Mobilisation and Statistics. 2015. Egypt in figures 2015. [ONLINE]. Available at: http://www.msrintranet.capmas.gov.eg/pdf/EgyptinFigures2015/EgyptinFigures/Tables/PDF/3-%20%D8%A7%D9%84%D8%B9%D9%85%D9%84/labor.pdf [Accessed 7 February 2017].
- World Economic Forum. 2016. The Global Gender Gap Report 2016. [ONLINE]. Available at: http://www3.weforum.org/docs/GGGR16/WEF_Global_Gender_Gap_Report_2016.pdf [Accessed 24 March 2017].
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- European Welfare States Blogspot. 2012. ‘World ranking in unemployment benefit replacement rates’. [ONLINE]. Available at: http://euwelfarestates.blogspot.co.za/2012/04/world-ranking-in-unemployment-benefit.html [Accessed 12 April 2017].
- Fair Labour Association. 2016. ‘Repression of independent unions in Egypt’ Issue Brief, May 2016. [ONLINE]. Available at: http://www.fairlabor.org/sites/default/files/documents/reports/may-2016-independent-trade-unions-in-egypt_0.pdf [Accessed 3 April 2017].
- ‘Egypt: Unshackle Workers’ Right to Organize: Draft Law Should Guarantee Unions’ Independence ’, Human Rights Watch, 30 April 2016. [ONLINE]. Available at: https://www.hrw.org/news/2016/04/30/egypt-unshackle-workers-right-organize [Accessed 27 March 2017].
- Fair Labour Association. 2016. ‘Repression of independent unions in Egypt’ Issue Brief, May 2016. [ONLINE]. Available at: http://www.fairlabor.org/sites/default/files/documents/reports/may-2016-independent-trade-unions-in-egypt_0.pdf [Accessed 3 April 2017].
- Ulandssekretariatet. 2015. Labour market profile: Egypt 2015. [ONLINE]. Available at: http://www.ulandssekretariatet.dk/sites/default/files/uploads/public/PDF/LMP/LMP2015/lmp_egypt_2015_final_version.pdf [Accessed 14 February 2017].
- Human Rights Watch, 2016. ‘Egypt: Unshackle Workers’ Right to Organise’. [ONLINE]. Available at: https://www.hrw.org/news/2016/04/30/egypt-unshackle-workers-right-organize [Accessed 7 April 2017].
- Ibid.
- Ibid.
- Ibid.
- International Trade Union Confederation. 2016. The 2016 ITUC Global Rights Index: The world's worst countries for workers. [ONLINE]. Available at: https://www.ituc-csi.org/IMG/pdf/survey_ra_2016_eng.pdf [Accessed 27 March 2017].
- International Trade Union Conferdation.2016. Egypt – in practice. [ONLINE]. Available at: http://survey.ituc-csi.org/Egypt.html#tabs-3 [Accessed 7 April 2017].
- International Trade Union Confederation. 2016. The 2016 ITUC Global Rights Index: The world's worst countries for workers. [ONLINE]. Available at: https://www.ituc-csi.org/IMG/pdf/survey_ra_2016_eng.pdf [Accessed 27 March 2017].
- World Bank Group. 2017. Doing Business: Economy Profile Egypt. [ONLINE]. Available at: http://www.doingbusiness.org/~/media/wbg/doingbusiness/documents/profiles/country/egy.pdf [Accessed 14 February 2017].
- Ulandssekretariatet. 2015. Labour market profile: Egypt 2015. [ONLINE]. Available at: http://www.ulandssekretariatet.dk/sites/default/files/uploads/public/PDF/LMP/LMP2015/lmp_egypt_2015_final_version.pdf [Accessed 14 February 2017].
- Ibid.
- Peace Research Institute Frankfurt. 2016. From driver of change to marginalized actor: Egypt’s new unionism from a comparative perspective (working paper). [ONLINE]. Available at: https://www.hsfk.de/fileadmin/HSFK/hsfk_publikationen/PRIF_WP_31.pdf [Accessed 27 March 2017].
- Ulandssekretariatet. 2015. Labour market profile: Egypt 2015. [ONLINE]. Available at: http://www.ulandssekretariatet.dk/sites/default/files/uploads/public/PDF/LMP/LMP2015/lmp_egypt_2015_final_version.pdf [Accessed 14 February 2017].
- Peace Research Institute Frankfurt. 2016. From driver of change to marginalized actor: Egypt’s new unionism from a comparative perspective (working paper). [ONLINE]. Available at: https://www.hsfk.de/fileadmin/HSFK/hsfk_publikationen/PRIF_WP_31.pdf [Accessed 27 March 2017].
- Ibid.
- Ibid.
- Ibid.
- Ulandssekretariatet. 2015. Labour market profile: Egypt 2015. [ONLINE]. Available at: http://www.ulandssekretariatet.dk/sites/default/files/uploads/public/PDF/LMP/LMP2015/lmp_egypt_2015_final_version.pdf [Accessed 14 February 2017].
- Peace Research Institute Frankfurt. 2016. From driver of change to marginalized actor: Egypt’s new unionism from a comparative perspective (working paper). [ONLINE]. Available at: https://www.hsfk.de/fileadmin/HSFK/hsfk_publikationen/PRIF_WP_31.pdf [Accessed 27 March 2017].
- Ulandssekretariatet. 2015. Labour market profile: Egypt 2015. [ONLINE]. Available at: http://www.ulandssekretariatet.dk/sites/default/files/uploads/public/PDF/LMP/LMP2015/lmp_egypt_2015_final_version.pdf [Accessed 14 February 2017].
- Ibid.
- ‘Striking egyptian workers fuel the uprising after 10 years of labour organizing’, Independent Global News, 10 February 2011. [ONLINE]. Available at: https://www.democracynow.org/2011/2/10/egyptian_uprising_surges_as_workers_join [Accessed 28 March 2017].
- ‘Human Rights Watch: Egypt stifling right to strike’ 2017. Middle East Monitor. [ONLINE]. Available at: https://www.middleeastmonitor.com/20170309-hrw-egypt-stifling-right-to-strike/ [Accessed 11 April 2017].
- Gamil, D. 2017. ‘Textile strike clampdown – a sign of repressive times in Egypt’ Equal Times. [ONLINE]. Available at: https://www.equaltimes.org/textile-strike-clampdown-a-sign-of?lang=en#.WOyK1fmGPIV [Accessed 11 April 2017].
- ’21 Striking IFFCO workers acquitted by Suez appeals court’ 2017. Madamasr. [ONLINE]. Available at: http://www.madamasr.com/en/2017/03/09/news/u/21-striking-iffco-workers-acquitted-by-suez-appeals-court/ [Accessed 11 April 2017].
- World Economic Forum. 2016. The Global Competitiveness Report 2016-2017. [ONLINE]. Available at: http://www3.weforum.org/docs/GCR2016-2017/05FullReport/TheGlobalCompetitivenessReport2016-2017_FINAL.pdf [Accessed 13 February 2017].
- Ibid.
- Ibid.
- Egyptian Human Resource Management Association. 2017. About EHRMA. [ONLINE]. Available at: http://www.ehrma.net/en/#!/content/about_us/37.html [Accessed 20 February 2017].
- World Economic Forum, 2016. The Future of Jobs. [ONLINE]. Available at: http://www3.weforum.org/docs/WEF_Future_of_Jobs.pdf
- World Economic Forum, 2016. ‘The fourth industrial revolution: what it means, how to respond’. [ONLINE]. Available at: https://www.weforum.org/agenda/2016/01/the-fourth-industrial-revolution-what-it-means-and-how-to-respond/ [Accessed 21 July 2016].
- Schwab, K. 2016. The Fourth Industrial Revolution – Introduction. [ONLINE]. Available at: http://www3.weforum.org/docs/Media/KSC_4IR.pdf
- Ibid.
- International Federation of Robotics, 2016. Statistical department. [ONLINE]. Available at: http://www.worldrobotics.org/index.php?id=home&news_id=290 [Accessed 28 July 2016].
- Ibid.
- Ibid.
- World Economic Forum, 2016. The Future of Jobs. [ONLINE]. Available at: http://www3.weforum.org/docs/WEF_Future_of_Jobs.pdf
- International Federation of Robotics, 2016. Statistical department. [ONLINE]. Available at: http://www.worldrobotics.org/index.php?id=home&news_id=290 [Accessed 28 July 2016].
- McKinsey Quarterly, January 2014. ‘3D printing takes shape’. [ONLINE]. Available at: http://www.mckinsey.com/business-functions/operations/our-insights/3-d-printing-takes-shape [Accessed 19 July 2016].
- World Economic Forum, 2016. ‘Three technologies revolutionising patient healthcare’ [ONLINE]. Available at: http://reports.weforum.org/digital-transformation-of-industries/improving-patient-outcomes-and-lowering-costs-through-smart-care/
- World Economic Forum, 2016. ‘Surviving digital disruption’ [ONLINE]. Available at: http://reports.weforum.org/digital-transformation-of-industries/surviving-digital-disruption/ [Accessed 21 July 2016].
- World Bank, 2016. ‘Keeping pace with digital disruption: Regulating the sharing economy’. [ONLINE]. Available at: http://blogs.worldbank.org/psd/keeping-pace-digital-disruption-regulating-sharing-economy [Accessed 17 August 2016].
- Ibid.
- McKinsey & Company, 2016. ‘How advanced analytics can drive productivity’. [ONLINE]. Available at: http://www.mckinsey.com/business-functions/mckinsey-analytics/our-insights/how-advanced-analytics-can-drive-productivity?cid=podcast-eml-alt-mip-mck-oth-1608 [Accessed 17 August 2016].
- World Economic Forum, 2016. ‘Data and the fourth industrial revolution’. [ONLINE]. Available at: https://www.weforum.org/agenda/2015/12/data-and-the-fourth-industrial-revolution/ [Accessed 17 August 2016].
- Ibid.
- Brynjolfsson, E. and McAfee, A. 2015. ‘Will Humans go the way of Horses?’ Foreign Affairs. [ONLINE]. Available at: https://www.foreignaffairs.com/articles/2015-06-16/will-humans-go-way-horses
- The Economist, 2016. ‘From not working to neural networking’. [ONLINE]. Available at: http://www.economist.com/news/special-report/21700756-artificial-intelligence-boom-based-old-idea-modern-twist-not
- BBC, 2016. Inside a robot-run warehouse. [ONLINE – VIDEO]. Available at: http://www.bbc.com/news/technology-36649673
- The Economist, 2016. ‘From not working to neural networking’. [ONLINE]. Available at: http://www.economist.com/news/special-report/21700756-artificial-intelligence-boom-based-old-idea-modern-twist-not
- The Economist, 2016. ‘Automation and anxiety’. [ONLINE]. Available at: http://www.economist.com/news/special-report/21700758-will-smarter-machines-cause-mass-unemployment-automation-and-anxiety
- Ibid.
- Brynjolfsson, E. and McAfee, A. 2015. ‘Will Humans go the way of Horses?’ Foreign Affairs. [ONLINE]. Available at: https://www.foreignaffairs.com/articles/2015-06-16/will-humans-go-way-horses
- World Economic Forum, 2016. The Future of Jobs. [ONLINE]. Available at: http://www3.weforum.org/docs/WEF_Future_of_Jobs.pdf
- Ibid.
- Ibid.
- Ibid.
- Ibid.
- Ibid.
- Coleman, G., 5 May 2016. ‘How Africa can lead the way in the Fourth Industrial Revolution’ [ONLINE]. Available at: https://www.weforum.org/agenda/2016/05/how-africa-can-lead-the-way-in-the-fourth-industrial-revolution/ [Accessed 20 July 2016].
- Ibid.
- Ibid.
- Anan, K. and Dryden, S., 2015. ‘How Digital Technology is Transforming African Agriculture’ Foreign Affairs. [ONLINE]. Available at: https://www.foreignaffairs.com/articles/africa/2015-10-16/food-and-transformation-africa [Accessed 19 July 2016].
- Coleman, G. 5 May 2016. ‘How Africa can lead the way in the Fourth Industrial Revolution’ [ONLINE]. Available at: https://www.weforum.org/agenda/2016/05/how-africa-can-lead-the-way-in-the-fourth-industrial-revolution/ [Accessed 20 July 2016].
- Anan, K. and Dryden, S., 2015. ‘How Digital Technology is Transforming African Agriculture’ Foreign Affairs. [ONLINE]. Available at: https://www.foreignaffairs.com/articles/africa/2015-10-16/food-and-transformation-africa [Accessed 19 July 2016].
- International Telecommunication Union, 2016. Aggregate data 2005-2015. [ONLINE]. Available at: http://www.itu.int/en/ITU-D/Statistics/Pages/stat/default.aspx [Accessed 20 July 2016].
- African Health Observatory, 2016. ‘Mobile health; transforming the face of health service delivery in the African region’. [ONLINE]. Available at: https://www.aho.afro.who.int/en/blog/2015/03/10/mobile-health-transforming-face-health-service-delivery-african-region
- Ibid.
- Ibid.
- The Guardian, 2012. ‘Africa innovations: 15 ideas helping to transform a continent’. [ONLINE]. Available at: https://www.theguardian.com/world/2012/aug/26/africa-innovations-transform-continent
- The Economist, 4 October 2014. “’Arrested development’. [ONLINE]. Available at: http://www.economist.com/news/special-report/21621158-model-development-through-industrialisation-its-way-out-arrested-development
- Financial Times. 6 June 2016. ‘China’s robot revolution’. [ONLINE]. Available at: https://www.ft.com/content/1dbd8c60-0cc6-11e6-ad80-67655613c2d6
- Ibid.
- World Bank, 2016. World Development Indicators. [ONLINE]. Available at: http://databank.worldbank.org [Accessed 22 July 2016].
- Bluen, S. 2013. Talent Management in Emerging Markets. Randburg: Knowledge Resources.
- Ibid.
- Ibid.
- Ibid.
- Egyptian Human Resource Management Association. 2017. About EHRMA. [ONLINE]. Available at: http://www.ehrma.net/en/#!/home.html [Accessed 20 February 2017].
- South African Board for People Practices. 2014. [ONLINE]. Available at: http://www.sabpp.co.za
- Chartered Institute of Personnel and Development. 2014. UK. [ONLINE]. Available at: http://www.cipd.co.uk
- Faculty of Management Department of Industrial Psychology and People Management department. [ONLINE]. Available at: http://www.uj.ac.za/EN/Faculties/management/departments/hrm/Pages/default.aspx and Wits Business School, Postgraduate Diploma in Management. [ONLINE]. Available at: http://www.wbs.ac.za/programmes/degrees/pdm
Egypt
Unemployment and Job Creation
According to Egypt’s 2015 Statistical Yearbook, unemployment was 13% in 2014, an increase from 9.4% in 2009. The rate of unemployment was far higher for females (23%) than males (5.2%) in 2008, and similarly in 2014, the unemployment rate for females (24%) was more than double that of their male (9.6%) counterparts. Despite being far lower than the female unemployment rate, between 2008 and 2014 unemployment among males almost doubled.
Table 5.17: Unemployment rates for the population 15 years and older by sex (2009–2014)
Sex | 2009 | 2011 | 2013 | 2014 |
Male | 5.2 | 8.9 | 9.8 | 9.6 |
Female | 23.0 | 22.7 | 24.2 | 24.0 |
Total | 9.4 | 12.0 | 13.2 | 13.0 |
Source: CAPMAS, 2015[34]
ILO estimates indicate that the youth unemployment rate was 33.4% in 2016. Although this rate dropped from 38.6% in 2014, it is significantly higher than the rate of 2000 (25.1%). Between 2000 and 2016, the female youth unemployment rate was much higher than the male rate, and though the difference between the two declined somewhat over this period it was still considerable in 2016 (29% for males and 46% for females). Since 2000 the youth unemployment rate has been more than four times that of significantly higher than the adult rate, over four times greater in 2016.
Table 5.18: Unemployment rates for the youth (15–24 years) and adult (over 25 years) population (2000–2016)
15–24 years | Over 25 years | |||||||
2000 | 2014 | 2015 | 2016 | 2000 | 2014 | 2015 | 2016 | |
Total | 25.1 | 38.6 | 33.9 | 33.4 | 4.4 | 7.6 | 8.4 | 7.7 |
Male | 16.8 | 33.6 | 31.3 | 29.0 | 2.6 | 4.8 | 5.0 | 4.5 |
Female | 44.8 | 52.8 | 41.4 | 45.7 | 12.1 | 17.5 | 20.3 | 18.7 |
Source: : ILO, 2017[35]
In 2014, the majority of the unemployed population (39.7%) had completed an intermediate (technical secondary) education, while 27.9% had obtained a university education or higher. This is an extremely high proportion of the unemployed that are skilled or highly skilled. Surprisingly, of the unemployed population, only 6.1% could only read and write and 10.4% had no education at all. Among unemployed women, 35.6% had a tertiary education, compared to 21.9% of unemployed men.
Table 5.19: Distribution of the unemployed population by education and sex (2013–2014)
Education level | 2013* | 2014 | ||
Total | Male | Female | Total | |
Illiterate | 9.8 | 9.3 | 11.9 | 10.4 |
Read and write | 3.4 | 9.5 | 1.7 | 6.1 |
Lower than intermediate (below secondary) | 8.6 | 16.4 | 2.5 | 10.3 |
General or Al-Azhar secondary | 1.6 | 2.4 | 0.7 | 1.7 |
Intermediate (technical secondary) | 41.1 | 37.0 | 43.3 | 39.7 |
Above intermediate and below university | 4.5 | 3.4 | 4.3 | 3.8 |
University or higher | 31.1 | 21.9 | 35.6 | 27.9 |
Sources: *CAPMAS, 2015[36]; CAPMAS, 2015[37]
Correspondingly, the unemployment rate was highest among those with a university education (20%), followed by those with an intermediate (technical secondary) education (16.4%) and those with a general or Al-Azhar secondary education (14.5%). The rate was lowest among the illiterate (5.8%) and those that can only read and write (8.7%). Unemployment tended to be substantially higher among women than men at all levels of education, and the difference was highest among those with technical secondary and tertiary education.[38]
Table 5.20: Unemployment rate by educational attainment and sex (2014)
Education level | Male | Female | Total |
Illiterate | 4.2 | 9.6 | 5.8 |
Read and write | 8.4 | 12.2 | 8.7 |
Lower than intermediate (below secondary) | 11.4 | 13.0 | 11.6 |
General or Al-Azhar secondary | 13.1 | 28.1 | 14.5 |
Intermediate (technical secondary) | 11.1 | 34.5 | 16.4 |
Above intermediate and below university | 7.7 | 23.1 | 11.5 |
University or higher | 13.7 | 31.6 | 20.0 |
Source: CAPMAS, 2015[39]
The World Bank attributes unemployment in Egypt largely to the stagnation of formal private sector businesses in the last 15 years. Small firms that would generate employment struggle to compete with larger, older firms, partly because government policies and regulations favour the latter. The bank argues that if regulations were applied uniformly, smaller firms would be better able to compete, and consequently create employment.[40] Since small to medium enterprises are labour-intensive and geographically dispersed they can offer employment to the youth and women in poverty stricken areas.[41]
Promoting entrepreneurship, especially among the youth, is another job creation strategy that the country can implement to reduce unemployment. Roughly a third of youth interviewed in 2013 who opened their own businesses did so because wage work was scarce, suggesting that limited number of jobs and unemployment has pushed the youth to become entrepreneurs.[42]
In 2015, the Egyptian government announced that it would privatise a number of state owned oil and gas, chemicals, utilities and shipping companies over three to five years. This will entail selling minority shares (not exceeding 24%) to interested parties in the private sector as part of the conditions of an IMF USD$12bn loan. In the 4th quarter of 2017, 24% of state owned company Engineering for the Petroleum and Process Industries (ENPPI) is set to go on sale as part of this programme.
Privatisation could benefit Egypt through revenue generation for the government, improving efficiency in privatised companies due to reduced political interference and increased accountability to shareholders. If small and medium sized companies are able to benefit from the privatization, this could result in increased economic competition. The privatization process could also result in increased employment.
As it stands however, though privatisation is likely to generate much needed revenue and attract some investment in the flailing economy, it is unlikely to address the much larger problem of unemployment. This is because the selling of minority stakes in the different companies means that the government will remain largely in control of the companies (76%) and any efficiency, management or competition issues will remain shaped by political factors. Without proper deregulation policies to create more opportunities for other companies in the sector the opposite could result - a few companies dominate.
- Country Profile
- Introduction
- Broad Economic Indicators
- Currency and Exchange Rate
- Competitiveness and Ease of Doing Business
- Foreign Investment and Largest Companies
- Foreign Aid
- Country Strategic Framework
- Summary of Economic Conditions
- Implications, Challenges and Recommendations
- Population
- Living Standards and Poverty Levels
- Healthcare
- Implications, Challenges and Recommendations
- Qualifications Profile of the Population and Workforce
- Levels of Schooling and Basic Education
- Technical and Vocational Education and Training
- Tertiary Education
- Innovation in Egypt
- Implications, Challenges and Recommendations
- Labour Force
- Employment by Sector
- Employment by Skill Level
- Employment by Occupation
- Labour Productivity
- Unemployment and Job Creation
- Expatriates, Immigrants and the Egyptian Diaspora
- Wage and Salary Trends and Social Insurance
- Industrial Relations Framework
- Labour Market Efficiency
- The Fourth Industrial Revolution
- Implications, Challenges and Recommendations
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